Recovery of Heavy Hydrocarbons from Indonesian Carbonate Asphalt Rocks. Part 1: Solvent Extraction, Particle Sedimentation, and Solvent Recycling
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Quite different from the Canadian oil sands in oil content/composition, mineral composition, and particle size distribution, the carbonate Indonesian asphalt rocks (oil-wetted) are proven to be poorly extracted by the commercial hot-water-based extraction (7.8% bitumen recovery at 50 °C and pH 9.0). Great enhancement was obtained using multi-staged solvent extraction with four typical solvents (i.e., toluene, n -heptane, n -hexane, and cyclohexane), resulting in a cumulative bitumen recovery up to 98% at ambient conditions. After the extraction, a systematical particle sedimentation test has been conducted in the non-aqueous phase. It is found that there are oil-phase and consolidated zone with only one clear solid–liquid interface appearing in the toluene and cyclohexane solutions with high bitumen during the carbonate particle sedimentation. However, an extra “settling zone” appeared between the oil-phase and consolidated zone in n -heptane and n -hexane solutions, resulting in the appearance of two solid–liquid interfaces. A mathematical model has been proposed to describe the carbonate particle settling behaviors for both interfaces in different solvent extraction systems. The settling rates of carbonate particles in different solutions are in a descending order of n -hexane > n -heptane > toluene > cyclohexane. The equilibrium height of settled solids is found to be higher in n -hexane and n -heptane systems than those in toluene and cyclohexane systems at given conditions, which is mainly contributed to the higher bitumen components (e.g., asphaltenes) attached on the solid surfaces. A water-flooding method is finally applied to remove and recover the residual solvent from the waste solids, leading up to 93% of the residual solvent together with some residual bitumen being recovered. It is also found that increasing the wettability of residual carbonate solids by increasing extraction times is beneficial for the residual solvent recovery.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".