Anosmia in Elderly: Predictor of Cognitive Impairment
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The prevalence of olfactory impairment and cognitive impairment increases with age. Olfactory impairment has been associated with neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Parkinson’s disease. The present study was carried out to find out the prevalence of anosmia in the elderly and cognitive impairment in the elderly along with the association of anosmia and cognitive impairment in the elderly. Present study is a hospital based, observational, case-control study, in which 100 elderly subjects (age >65 years, Males 64, Females 36, ratio 1.7:1), attending the geriatric OPD, were included as cases and 100 subjects (<65 years, Males54, females 46, ratio-1.1:1) as controls. Anosmia was assessed by Indian Smell Identification Test (INSIT), in which 10 essences were used and 1 point was awarded for correct and 0 for incorrect identification. A score of ≤ 4 indicates anosmia. All cases were subjected to thorough clinical examination and lab investigations. Cognitive impairment was diagnosed by 30 point mini-mental state examination (MMSE) where scores ≤ 23 indicates cognitive impairment. Statistical analysis was performed by using students ‘t’ test, chi square test p value and univariate analysis. Mean age in cases was 68.4±3.7 years and in controls is 39.4±7.9 years. Anosmia was detected in 64% of cases as compared to controls 4% (p <0.01). Mean INSIT score was significantly lower (4.02 + 1.88) in cases as compared to controis7.36 + 1.35, p< 0.01. Cognitive impairment was present in 50% of the cases and 1% control, (p<0.001). Mean MMSE score was also significantly lower in cases (20.99 + 5.1) than controls (27.47 + 1.79, p <0.001. Anosmia is found to be significantly associated with cognitive impairment in cases. Anosmia, a surrogate marker of cognitive impairment, is prevalent in elderly. Cognitive impairment is also prevalent in elderly. In elderly subjects, anosmia is associated with cognitive impairment. Keywords: Anosmia, Cognitive impairment, Geriatric age group
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".