Multiple founder effects are followed by range expansion and admixture during the invasion process of the raccoon (<i>Procyon lotor</i>) in Europe
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract Aim Understanding colonization dynamics is crucial for management of invasive species. We compare the genetic structure of historical (Central Europe) and recent (Spain) invasive populations with native and captive populations of the North American raccoon ( Procyon lotor ). Our aim was to analyse the effects of colonization age on genetic population structure, understand the role of captive individuals as potential founders and test the role of rivers for the dispersal of the species. Location North America, Spain, Central Europe. Methods We genotyped wild‐caught raccoons from Spain and Central Europe ( N = 596), zoos ( N = 57) and the native range ( N = 153) at 16 microsatellite loci and sequenced a mitochondrial DNA fragment (Control Region). We analysed population genetic structuring with Bayesian assignment methods and a FCA . In a landscape genetic analysis, we tested the effect of waterways in the dispersal of the species. Results We detected 16 genetic clusters (in baps ), supporting the hypothesis of multiple introductions and ongoing releases in the invasive range. The native population showed nearly no genetic structure, the Central European clusters showed signals of admixture, whereas the Spanish clusters were clearly separated. Admixture of the Central European clusters was probably caused by recent contact of populations with different origin. The landscape genetic analysis showed that rivers represent neither barriers nor corridors in Central Europe. Main conclusions As the Spanish populations are genetically more diverse than the Central European, we expect increased within‐population diversity when the still isolated populations merge after range expansion. As our results provide evidence for gene flow between zoos and free‐ranging populations, better control of pet trade is essential in the management efforts concerning this invasive species. Our study shows that genetic analyses can help to reconstruct invasion processes, which is important for better understanding and effective management of invasive species.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".