Parental Leave and Father Involvement in Child Care: Sweden and the United States
Bibliographic record
Abstract
To promote men’s greater involvement with their children, many industrialized nations have mandated employment leave benefits for fathers. Sweden was the first nation to provide paid parental leave to all employed fathers, while in the United States unpaid parental leave has only recently become available from larger employers. Fathers’ parental leave patterns are described and parental leave as a means of getting fathers more involved in child care is assessed for these two very different nations. Government and research sources detail the development and use of parental leave. In 1998, one hundred parents in the U.S. completed questionnaires on their work schedule changes after the arrival of a baby, reactions to these changes, and child care activities. These parents’ data are compared to findings from previous studies in both nations, especially Linda Haas’ 1986 study of parental leave in Sweden. Swedish fathers took more formal parental leave and for longer periods than U.S. fathers. In both nations, fathers who took leave spent more time with their children than fathers who did not take leave, but the differences were not significant. Swedish fathers who took leave consistently shared child care tasks and responsibility for child care with mothers more than Swedish fathers who did not take leave and most of the differences were significant. Among U.S. fathers, those who did not take leave were more likely to share child care tasks and responsibility with mothers, although most of the differences were not significant.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.004 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".