Sexual Orientation Wage Gaps across Local Labour Market Contexts: Evidence from Canada
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Mounting evidence suggests that sexual orientation matters in the labour market. Research in Canada points to a wage hierarchy not only by gender, but also by sexual orientation, with heterosexual men out-earning gay men, lesbians, and heterosexual women. While previous work has considered how human capital characteristics, occupation and industry of employment, and family status factor into the creation of these earnings disparities, little research has examined how residential concentration in large metropolitan areas factors into the creation of sexual orientation pay gaps. Drawing on the 2006 Census of Canada , this study investigates how sexual orientation wage gaps vary across geographic areas in Canada, documenting earnings disparities across the metropolitan/non-metropolitan divide as well as for Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. We also evaluate whether the mechanisms contributing to wage gaps diverge across these contexts, focusing on how pay gaps differ across occupations, points in the earnings distribution, and sectors of employment. Our results show that pay gaps are highest in non-metropolitan Canada. The underlying components of wage gaps fluctuate across Canada, especially for gay men. Sexual orientation earnings penalties are reduced in public sector employment, even where private sector wage gaps are highest. These results suggest that local social and labour market contexts are associated with the earnings outcomes of sexual minorities.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".