Click characteristics of northern bottlenose whales (<i>Hyperoodon ampullatus</i>) and Sowerby's beaked whales (<i>Mesoplodon bidens</i>) off eastern Canada
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) is crucial to expanding the knowledge of beaked whales, including the northern bottlenose whale (Hyperoodon ampullatus) and Sowerby's beaked whale (Mesoplodon bidens). Existing descriptions of clicks produced by these species are limited by sample size, number of individuals recorded, and geographic scope. Data from multiple encounters in the western North Atlantic are used to provide a quantitative description of clicks produced by these species. Recordings from nine encounters with northern bottlenose whales in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland were analyzed (N = 2239 clicks). The click type described had a median peak frequency of 25.9 kHz (10th-90th percentile range: 22.9-29.3 kHz), and a median inter-click interval (ICI) of 402 ms (N = 1917, 10th-90th percentile range: 290-524 ms). Recordings from 18 Sowerby's beaked whale encounters from Nova Scotia were analyzed (N = 762 clicks). The click type described had a median peak frequency of 65.8 kHz (10th-90th percentile range: 61.5-76.5 kHz), and a median ICI of 237 ms (N = 677, 10th-90th percentile range: 130-315 ms). These results will contribute to the development of methods to detect and classify beaked whale clicks to the species level, improving the effectiveness of PAM and enhancing scientific understanding and conservation efforts for cryptic and at-risk cetaceans.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".