Appearance and Disappearance of Quasi-Liquid Layers on Ice Crystals in the Presence of Nitric Acid Gas
Why this work is in the frame
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Bibliographic record
Abstract
The surfaces of ice crystals near the melting point are covered with thin liquid water layers, called quasi-liquid layers (QLLs), which play crucial roles in various chemical reactions in nature. So far, there have been many spectroscopic studies of such chemical reactions on ice surfaces, however, revealing the effects of atmospheric gases on ice surfaces remains an experimental challenge. In this study, we chose HNO3 as a model atmospheric gas, and directly observed the ice basal faces by advanced optical microscopy under partial pressure of HNO3 (~10−4 Pa), relevant to those found in the atmosphere. We found that droplets (HNO3-QLLs) appeared on ice surfaces at temperatures ranging from −0.9 to −0.2 °C with an increase in temperature, and that they disappeared at temperatures ranging from −0.6 to −1.3 °C with decreasing temperature. We also found that the size of the HNO3-QLLs decreased immediately after we started reducing the temperature. From the changes in size and the liquid–solid phase diagram of the HNO3-H2O binary system, we concluded that the HNO3-QLLs did not consist of pure water, but rather aqueous HNO3 solutions, and that the temperature and HNO3 concentration of the HNO3-QLLs also coincided with those along a liquidus line.
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Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from it