A disc reflection model for ultra-soft narrow-line Seyfert 1 galaxies
Bibliographic record
Abstract
ABSTRACT We present a detailed analysis of the XMM–Newton observations of five narrow-line Seyfert 1 galaxies (NLS1s). They all show very soft continuum emission in the X-ray band with a photon index of Γ ≳ 2.5. Therefore, they are referred to as ‘ultra-soft’ NLS1s in this paper. By modelling their optical/UV–X-ray spectral energy distribution (SED) with a reflection-based model, we find indications that the disc surface in these ultra-soft NLS1s is in a higher ionization state than other typical Seyfert 1 AGN. Our best-fitting SED models suggest that these five ultra-soft NLS1s have an Eddington ratio of λEdd = 1–20 assuming available black hole mass measurements. In addition, our models infer that a significant fraction of the disc energy in these ultra-soft NLS1s is radiated away in the form of non-thermal emission instead of the thermal emission from the disc. Due to their extreme properties, X-ray observations of these sources in the iron band are particularly challenging. Future observations, e.g. from Athena, will enable us to have a clearer view of the spectral shape in the iron band and thus distinguish the reflection model from other interpretations of their broad-band spectra.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.004 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".