Characterizing Returning Polymers in Hydraulic-Fracturing Flowback and Produced Water: Implications for Colloid Formation (includes associated erratum)
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Summary Partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (PHPA) friction reducer was investigated in produced water from hydraulically fractured wells in the Duvernay and Montney Formations of western Canada. Produced water from systems that used nonencapsulated breaker had little residual solids (<0.3 g/L) and high degrees of hydrolysis, as shown by Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Where an encapsulated breaker was used, more colloidal solids (1.1–2.2 g/L) were found with lower degrees of hydrolysis. In this system, the molecular weight (MW) of polymers was investigated, which decreased to <2% of the original weight within 1 hour of flowback. This was accompanied by slow hydrolysis and an increase in methine over methylene groups. Increased polymer-fragment concentrations were found to be correlated with a higher abundance of metal-carrying colloidal phases. This can lead to problems such as higher heavy-metal mobility in the case of produced-water spills and can cause membrane fouling during produced-water recycling and reuse. NOTE: An erratum has been issued for this paper and added to the PDF. A copy is also available under the Supplementary Data section.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".