Song but not plumage varies geographically among willow flycatcher <i>Empidonax traillii</i> subspecies
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Plumage and song are important signals used by birds to attract mates and repel rivals. Divergence in sexual signals can lead to reproductive isolation among incipient species, but the relative importance of each modality may vary among taxa. Tyrannid flycatchers exhibit evolutionarily conservative plumage coloration but distinct song structure among subfamilies and species. Thus, tyrannids are an interesting group in which to study the relative role of plumage and song in contributing to population divergence. In this study, we assessed character divergence among four willow flycatcher Empidonax traillii subspecies by measuring spectral reflectance of plumage modeled in tetrahedral colorspace from museum specimens collected on putative breeding grounds. We also quantified differences in song structure based on publicly available and field‐recorded songs across the species range. Using unsupervised and unbiased clustering algorithms that assigned group membership independent of a priori taxonomic designations, we found that currently recognized subspecies did not consistently sort in accordance with subspecies designation based on plumage color. However, song analyses grouped birds into two clusters; one that included 89% of all putative E. t. extimus , and another that included 100% of specimens designated as E. t. adastus , E. t. brewsteri , E. t. traillii and a small percentage of E. t. extimus (11%). Our results are consistent with previous hypotheses of conservative plumage evolution in tyrannids and species differentiation based on song, and support the subspecific status of E. t. extimus .
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".