Bibliographic record
Abstract
Nonetheless, it is important to recognise that perceptions of federalism changed concomitantly in the nineteenth century with the uneven development of liberal democracy in the United Kingdom (UK), parts of Continental Europe and Latin America and the United States of America (USA). In comparative terms, the imperial federation that constituted Imperial Germany in 1871 sat uncomfortably with the constitutional metamorphosis of Switzerland in 1848 into a new federation, the Canadian Westminster model of parliamentary federation in 1867 and the post-bellum USA but they were different types of federal models that practised different kinds of limited liberal representative democracy. Not surprisingly, it was the USA that became the dominant federal model of emulation in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries for aspiring liberal democracies wishing to utilise federal principles for different purposes. As the USA progressed so impressively in socio-economic and technological terms in the late nineteenth century so did the reputation of federalism not only as an innovative means of state and nation building but also as the archetype of a new form of territorial state and government whose philosophical foundations were anchored in the concept of civitas or res publica. The new republic gradually came to symbolise the ideal of liberal democratic constitutional government with popular sovereignty vested in the written constitution. No better example of the high esteem in which the US federal model was held can be demonstrated than the famous statement made by one of the leading scholars of federalism in the early period after the end of the Second World War. In 1946 Kenneth Wheare’s Federal Government was published and in the course of introducing his definition of the federal principle he confirmed the status of the model in the following terms:Many consider it the most important and the most successful example. Any definition of federal government which failed to include the United States would be . . . condemned as unreal. . . . (For) the federal principle has come to mean what it does because the United States has come to be what it is. . . . I believe, the government of the United States is the most successful federal government in the world.4
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.003 | 0.007 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.005 | 0.005 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.003 | 0.004 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.023 | 0.003 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".