From CO<sub>2</sub> to Formic Acid Fuel Cells
Why this work is in the frame
A frame that forgets how it found something cannot be audited. These are the routes that admitted this work.
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Formic acid is a liquid, safe, and energy-dense carrier for fuel cells. Above all, it can be sustainably produced from the electroreduction of CO2. The formic acid market is currently saturated, and it requires alternative applications to justify additional production capacity. Fuel cell technologies offer a chance to expand it, while creating an opportunity for sustainability in the energy sector. Formic acid-based fuel cells represent a promising energy supply system in terms of high theoretical open-circuit voltage (1.48 V). Compared to common fuel cells running on H2 (e.g., proton-exchange membrane fuel cells), formic acid has a lower storage cost and is safer. This review focuses on the sustainable production of formic acid from CO2 and on the detailed analysis of commercial examples of formic acid-based fuel cells, in particular direct formic acid fuel cell stacks. Designs described in the literature are mostly at the laboratory scale, still, with 301 W as the maximum power output achieved. These case studies are fundamental for the scale-up; however, additional efforts are required to solve crossover and increase performance.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from it