The Development of Supraglacial Stream Canyons
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Supraglacial streams can dramatically into the glacier surface. On Fountain Glacier, Bylot Island, two large supraglacial streams have formed unique canyons. Supraglacial stream canyons have only been mentioned in the literature on a few occasions and process-level understanding is lacking. The aim of this research is to determine the processes impacting formation, time-scale of development, and distribution of supraglacial stream canyons. This was accomplished through three complementary studies: 1) an examination of short-term development of supraglacial streams, particularly in reference to surface, incised, and canyon stream formation; 2) an investigation of medium-term canyon meandering and erosion development and; 3) a determination of factors controlling worldwide canyon distribution, and a prediction of future distribution. These projects utilize high-resolution imagery collected on Fountain Glacier over time, and optical satellite imagery to map worldwide distribution of supraglacial stream canyons. This study has led to three major findings. 1) Canyons have a high likelihood of forming when the stream power is greater than 140 W/m. Canyon formation is limited in regions where stream power is low, where crevasses exist, and in areas where snow plugs are present within the channel. 2) Streambed erosion and widening at the bottom of the canyon creates greater area for solar radiation to differentially ablate the canyon walls. In 58 years, the studied canyon length, depth, and volume increased by 1607 m, 20 m, and 1.1x106 m3 due to a combination of fluvial erosion and solar radiation. It was found that glacier volume loss in the terminus region was comprised of 68.1% surface ablation, 25.8% glacier retreat /calving loss, and 6.1% canyon erosion. 3) Supraglacial stream canyons form in cold, dry regions, with a smooth glacier surface, free from crevasses in the Canadian Arctic, Northern Greenland, Alaska/Yukon, and Central / Northern Asia. This research has advanced our body of knowledge by determining how supraglacial stream canyons develop over time, and the processes that contribute to their formation. In addition, the current global distribution was established, and future canyon distribution was predicted.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".