Metformin Triggers Apoptosis and Induction of the G0/G1 Switch 2 Gene in Macrophages
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Metformin is a widely used antidiabetic drug for the treatment of type 2 diabetes and has been recently demonstrated to possess anti-inflammatory properties via AMPK-mediated modulation of M2 macrophage activation. However, the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of metformin on inflammatory macrophages are still not fully elucidated. In this study, we found that metformin induced apoptosis in macrophages. In particular, metformin induced apoptosis of M1 macrophages, based on M1 marker genes in apoptotic macrophages. Next, we comprehensively screened metformin-responsive genes in macrophages by RNA-seq and focused on the extrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway. The G0/G1 switch 2 gene (G0S2) was robustly up-regulated by metformin in macrophages. Overexpression of G0S2 significantly induced apoptosis of macrophages in a dose-dependent manner and blunted the function of the crucial anti-apoptotic gene Bcl-2, which was significantly reduced by metformin. These findings show that metformin promoted apoptosis of macrophages, especially M1 macrophages, via G0S2 induction and provides a novel anti-inflammatory mechanism of metformin through induction of macrophage apoptosis.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".