Modified clays reduce leaching of per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances from <scp>AFFF</scp>‐contaminated soils
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract Technologies applicable at a field scale to mitigate soil and groundwater pollution by per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) due to the release of aqueous film‐forming foams are urgently needed. We demonstrate that modified bentonite clays as soil amendments can effectively reduce the leaching of PFAS from impacted soils. In batch experiments, the significant decrease (95%–99%) of leachable anionic PFAS, including perfluorooctane sulfonate, perfluorohexane sulfonate, and perfluorooctane carboxylate, was achieved in 1–4 days at a clay dosage as low as 0.5% w/w. A significant decline of leachable cationic and zwitterionic PFAS (70%–99%) was also observed. The clays performed the best in immobilizing PFAS anions, while granular activated carbon was effective in preventing PFAS cation leaching. Hardwood biochar had minor or negligible effects on any PFAS. The study provides strong evidence to support using modified clays as part of mitigation or remediation strategies to prevent PFAS from mobilizing on a field scale. Article Impact Statement The study demonstrated that modified bentonite clays effectively immobilize various PFAS in AFFF‐contaminated soils to prevent leaching.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".