Estimating battery state of charge using recurrent and non-recurrent neural networks
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Battery state of charge estimation is critical for determining the remaining range of electrified vehicles and the runtime of battery-powered equipment. Neural network algorithms which learn the relation between battery measurements and state of charge are a promising alternative to estimators based on models with adaptive filters. In this work, two types of neural networks are studied: recurrent networks, which have inherent memory of the past, and non-recurrent networks, which can effectively have memory added through exogenous filtered inputs. An extensive and comprehensive study is performed for these network types, with learnable parameters ranging from 20 to 3000. Network performance is compared for two different battery types, multiple temperatures, drive cycles, and training repetitions. Compared to a recurrent neural network, a non-recurrent feedforward neural network with filtered inputs is found to be up to 23% more accurate, require less training time (76% less using a CPU and 60% less using a GPU), and execute in about 1/3 the amount of time on an NXP S32K142 microprocessor.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".