The welfare state: Images and realities
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The welfare state has evolved as a particular manifestation of Western democratic societies. The Communists disdain it, perhaps because Stalin regarded equality as a bourgeois prejudice. The earliest use of the term in Britain was apparently by William Temple, Archbishop of Canterbury, in Citizen and churchman (1941). He developed the notion of a welfare state in place of the conception of the ‘power state’. This notion, he argued, held only if the state fulfilled its moral and spiritual functions in promoting human welfare. The concept, if not the phrase itself, is to be found in the wartime debate which led, on the international plane, to the Allied programme agreed upon between Mr Churchill and Mr Roosevelt off Newfoundland in August 1941 and in the Atlantic Charter and the Four Freedoms – freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from want and freedom from fear. On the national plane in Britain, the phrase came to mean the minimum programme of social reform and reconstruction agreed upon between the three political parties in the wartime Coalition government. The need for radical changes in British society had been recognised earlier by conservative opinion and was reflected in much of the new social legislation for education, medical care and social security developed in the later years of the Second World War and after the Labour government assumed power in 1945. But the phrase ‘welfare state’ did not become part of the everyday language of social policy until after it had appeared on the American political stage. It was used in 1949 by former President Hoover, who described it as “a disguise for the totalitarian state” and it figured prominently in the congressional campaign of 1950. The British then took it over and it formed one of the major issues around which the general election of 1951 was fought. This election saw the Conservative Party return to office for the longest period in the 20th century to date [1951-64]. The term has apparently come to mean all sorts of things. Some have seen the development of the welfare state in historical perspective as part of a broad, ascending road of social betterment for the working classes, beginning in the 19th century and achieving its goal in our time.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.003 | 0.003 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.011 | 0.047 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.015 | 0.010 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.007 |
| Research integrity | 0.003 | 0.006 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.004 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".