Bibliographic record
Abstract
A striking feature of the world trading system in the half century between 1945 and 1995 was the dramatic decline in formal trade taxes, quantitative restrictions and other non-tariff barriers to international trade.Much of this was carried out under the General Agreement on Tariff s and Trade (GATT), which provided a set of agreed rules governing trade among its signatories, whose number increased from 23 in 1947 to 123 in 1994, when the World Trade Organization (WTO) superseded GATT as an international organization. 1At the same time, substantial reductions in transport costs, such as containerization and improved jet aircraft, and in logistics also contributed to the rapid growth of trade.Despite these changes, international trade remains more costly than domestic trade, and emphasis has turned to other costs of international trade.The issue was highlighted in the 1990s by research on the border eff ect, the mystery of missing trade, and puzzles in international economics.John McCallum (1995) showed that, despite the openness of the USA-Canada border, trade between a US state and a Canadian province is substantially lower than between two states or two provinces, other things equal; in 1988, British Columbia's exports to Ontario were $1400 million and to Texas $155 million, for example, even though Texas and Ontario are equidistant from British Columbia and the Texan economy was 50 per cent larger than that of Ontario.A border eff ect of this magnitude was striking because the two countries had reduced tariff barriers to very low levels, the USA-Canada border was one of the most open in the world, and cultural diff erences between the two countries were small. 2In another
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.002 | 0.006 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.003 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.007 | 0.005 |
| Open science | 0.003 | 0.005 |
| Research integrity | 0.004 | 0.003 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.591 | 0.437 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; the direct Gemma label and the distilled Codex classifier agree on what is shown here.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".