A Bootstrap Variance Estimation Method for Multistage Sampling and Two-Phase Sampling When Poisson Sampling Is Used at the Second Phase
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The bootstrap method is often used for variance estimation in sample surveys with a stratified multistage sampling design. It is typically implemented by producing a set of bootstrap weights that is made available to users and that accounts for the complexity of the sampling design. The Rao–Wu–Yue method is often used to produce the required bootstrap weights. It is valid under stratified with-replacement sampling at the first stage or fixed-size without-replacement sampling provided the first-stage sampling fractions are negligible. Some surveys use designs that do not satisfy these conditions. We propose a simple and unified bootstrap method that addresses this limitation of the Rao–Wu–Yue bootstrap weights. This method is applicable to any multistage sampling design as long as valid bootstrap weights can be produced for each distinct stage of sampling. Our method is also applicable to two-phase sampling designs provided that Poisson sampling is used at the second phase. We use this design to model survey nonresponse and derive bootstrap weights that account for nonresponse weighting. The properties of our bootstrap method are evaluated in three limited simulation studies.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.014 | 0.052 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.003 | 0.004 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.003 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.008 | 0.002 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".