Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy, officially bilingual (English and French), and one of the most multicultural countries in the world. Indeed, more than one-fifth of Canada’s population consists of first-generation immigrants, and a similar percentage classify themselves as visible minorities. According to the 2016 census there are more than 250 distinct ethnic origins, often with distinct languages (Statistics Canada, 2016, 2017a). A confederation of ten provinces and three territories, Canada has a current population of over 36 million people who live across an expansive geographic area that constitutes the second largest country in the world. Most of its population live in urban settings (83%), with the largest cities being Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver (Statistics Canada, 2017b). Toronto is classified as the third-most cosmopolitan city in the world following Dubai and Brussels (World Atlas, 2018). In this multifaceted context, the social economy of Canada plays an important role in bridging the public and private sectors to form a strong social infrastructure (Quarter, Mook, & Armstrong, 2018). It constitutes a vast range of organizations guided by social objectives including nonprofit organizations such as charities, foundations, and social enterprises; and cooperatives both non-financial, in fields such as housing, childcare, healthcare, and farm marketing, and financial such as credit unions and caisses populaires. There are distinct traditions of the social economy in anglophone and francophone parts of Canada. There are also traditions specific to particular populations, such as the Black social economy (Hossein, 2013); and the Indigenous social economy (Restoule, Gruner, & Metatawabin, 2012; Sengupta, Vieta, & McMurtry, 2015; Wuttunee, 2010). In this review, we look at the anglophone research on the social economy, noting that there are also French-language research institutions and educational programs focusing on the social economy; however, a review of these is beyond the scope of this paper. After providing an overview of the concept of the social economy in Canada, we go on to summarize research on its scope and size in the Canadian context. Using a Venn diagram, we highlight the interactions between the different sectors in society and emphasize that the social economy is an integral part of a mixed economy that serves in many ways as its social infrastructure. We find four different types of social economy organizations: social economy businesses, community economic development organizations, public sector nonprofits, and civil society organizations. From there, we focus on voluntaristic behaviors of giving, volunteering (formal and informal), and participating. Our focus shifts to describing the infrastructure supporting research of the sector, including key academic and umbrella associations and networks, as well as formal and informal education programs. Finally, we describe key funders of social economy research including government and foundations.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.007 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.003 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.003 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.002 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".