Experimental study on swelling pressure of low dry density compacted bentonites during saturation combining X-ray diffraction
Bibliographic record
Abstract
A multi-ring and a newly developed swelling pressure apparatus were adopted for measuring swelling pressure of three low dry density bentonites (sodium type: MX-80 and Kunigel-V1; calcium type: Kunibond). Subsequently, slices from the multi-ring were observed using X-ray diffraction to obtain basal spacings. Distance between particles was calculated from a basal spacing database. Relations between microstructural changes, including basal spacing and distance between particles, and swelling pressure are discussed. Results show that calcium-type bentonites have greater swelling pressure than sodium-type bentonites during saturation. When bentonites have the same cation type, lower montmorillonite content bentonite obtains smaller swelling pressures than the high montmorillonite content ones. Basal spacing increases drastically first and then maintains a stable value during saturation. All three bentonites gradually reach the 3 w state along with wetting (MX-80 and Kunigel-V1: 1–3 w; Kunibond: 2–3 w). The distance between particles increases with the saturation time. During saturation, swelling pressure generally rises with increasing basal spacing and increasing distance between particles. The mechanism for swelling pressure development is discussed.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".