The Relationship Between Public Spending and National Income: Empirical Evidence from Brazil from 1997 to 2019
Bibliographic record
Abstract
This paper investigates the existence of a causal relationship between public spending and national income, based on empirical evidence from Brazil, between 1997 and 2019. For this purpose, data on GDP and federal public expenditures were used. Initially, the ADF, Ng Perron and Perrontests were applied to measure the occurrence of unit roots, in I(0), no unitary roots were found, being stationary series. The Causality Test of Granger was then carried out to examine the occurrence of a causal relationship between expenditure and GDP, establishing the temporal precedence between the variables. It was concluded that there is a causal relationship between federal public expenditures and GDP. Thus, depending on the meaning, positive or negative, of this causal link, the approaches that deal with the dynamics of public spending and its causal link with income can be proven by Wagner's Law, Keynesian hypotheses and non-Keynesian hypotheses.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".