Trends in the Parenthood Gap in Health and Well-Being among U.S. Women from 1996 to 2018
Why this work is in the frame
A frame that forgets how it found something cannot be audited. These are the routes that admitted this work.
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The notion that U.S. mothers with minor children are less happy and more depressed than nonmothers largely relies on data collected in the 1990s or earlier. Although the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic brought much attention to the stressfulness of parenting, we lack knowledge of how mothers fared relative to nonmothers in the 2000s and 2010s, before the pandemic. The authors investigate trends in the parenthood gap in happiness, depression, and self-rated health among women aged 18 to 59 years, using the 1996 to 2018 General Social Survey ( n = 13,254) and the 1997 to 2018 National Health Interview Survey ( n = 263,110). Results indicate that twenty-first-century mothers with younger children were better off than nonmothers on two measures, reporting less depression and better health. Mothers’ “depression advantage” grew across this time. However, mothers with older children reported less happiness than nonmothers, a continued trend from the 1990s. The study underscores the importance of examining various well-being indicators across the changing contexts of parenting.
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Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.009 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from it