The occurrence of elevated δ34S in dissolved sulfate in a multi-level coal mine water system, Glasgow, UK
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Stable isotopic compositions of δ18O, δ2H and dissolved sulfate δ34S in water from abandoned and flooded coal mines are used to interpret the water's and solutes' origin and interactive history. These isotopic ratios have been determined in mine water from a shallow (<100 m) series of overlapping coal mine workings at the UK Geoenergy Observatories Glasgow Geothermal Energy Research Field Site (UKGEOS GGERFS). Comparison has been made between dissolved sulfate δ34S of water in mined Carboniferous coal-bearing strata, that of water which had interacted with equivalent unmined strata, and δ34S in sulfide-bearing minerals (pyrite) in the host sedimentary rocks and local evaporite (gypsum) of the Lower Carboniferous Ballagan Formation. δ18O and δ2H confirm a meteoric origin for coal mine waters. The δ34S arithmetic mean and standard deviation of the pyrite (+5.0 ± 15.5‰) and water from unmined strata (+0.3 ± 2.1‰) were found to be similar, whereas the mine water exhibited elevated isotopic values (+20.3 ± 1.1‰), plotting closer to that of modern-day seawater (+21.2‰) and Ballagan Formation gypsum (+18.9 ± 0.5‰). Whilst the origin of dissolved sulfate in the mine water remains unclear, it is unlikely to be wholly due to simple pyrite oxidation. Influence of evaporite dissolution, fractionation associated with microbial sulfate reduction, and mixing with saline formation waters of marine, evaporitic or of another origin, cannot be ruled out.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".