A Historical Review of Water Quality Conditions in Lake Erie Watershed from 1928 to 2022
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Lake Erie is the smallest and shallowest of the Great Lakes, and approximately 12 million people live in the watershed that includes 17 metropolitan areas. Lake Erie is the significant resource for drinking water; during the 1960s water quality issues became a concern, and Lake Erie was perceived to be “dying.” By the late 1960s, Canadian and American regulatory agencies agreed that limiting phosphorus loads was the key to controlling excessive algal growth and that a coordinated lake wide approach was necessary. This resulted in open lake phosphorus concentrations declined, by more than 62% of the total phosphorus load during 1968–1981; these decreases were attributed to the phosphorus abatement program on municipal sources, restriction of phosphate concentrations in detergents, and no-till farming. However, since 2003, in-lake concentrations of soluble reactive phosphorus and overall phytoplankton biomass (often dominated by the HAB genus Microcystis) have increased, while annual total phosphorus loading to the lake has remained below the 11-kilotonne level as mandated. Agricultural nonpoint sources of soluble reactive phosphorus have increased and contribute a larger proportion of total phosphorus loads to the Lake Erie. Further, nitrogen has been identified as potentially capable of limiting growth of freshwater cyanobacterial blooms, and it is suggested nitrogen loads to the lake should be controlled. Currently, the governors of Ohio and Michigan and the premier of Ontario committed to reducing phosphorus loadings to Lake Erie by 40%. This history of nutrient discharge to the Lake Erie and regulatory requirements are elucidated in the paper.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.008 | 0.015 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.004 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".