A novel amphibian sex determination candidate gene, evolved by structural variation in the regulatory region between X and Y
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract Most vertebrates develop distinct females and males, where sex is determined by repeatedly-evolved environmental or genetic triggers. Undifferentiated sex chromosomes and large genomes have caused major knowledge gaps in amphibians. Only a single master gene is known in >8650 species, the dmrt1 -paralogue ( dm-w ) of female-heterogametic clawed frogs ( Xenopus ; ZW♀/ZZ♂). Combining a chromosome-scale genome of a non-model amphibian, the European green toad, Bufo ( tes ) viridis , with ddRAD- and whole genome pool-sequencing revealed a novel candidate master gene ( bod1l ), governing a male-heterogametic system (XX♀/XY♂). Targeted sequencing across multiple taxa and a male long-read assembly uncovered structural X/Y-variation in the 5’-regulatory region, where a Y-specific non-coding RNA, only expressed in males, suggests regional enhancer-properties. Developmental transcriptomes and RNA in-situ hybridization provide evidence for timely and spatially relevant, sex-specific bod1l -gene expression in primordial gonads with coinciding differential H3K4me -methylation in pre-granulosa/pre-Sertoli cells, pointing to a novel mechanism of amphibian sex determination.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".