Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract The turn of the twentieth century witnessed the transformation of wilderness as an idea into wilderness as practice: the creation of parks and other areas permanently set aside from settlement. By this point, a body of influential Americans had become convinced that America’s abuse of nature had spiraled far out of control of such haphazard measures. Where were the enormous herds of buffalo that had once covered the Great Plains? Yellowstone, a few private ranches, and an isolated park in Canada housed the pathetic remnants of a population that had once numbered as much as 40 million. Flocks of passenger pigeons had once numbered in the billions, darkening the sky in flight and blanketing hundreds of miles of forest when at roost. Sports hunters and commercial hunters blazed away, convinced of nature’s inexhaustibility. The last known passenger pigeon, Martha, died a lonely death in a Cincinnati zoo in 1914, more than a decade after the last verifiable sighting in the wild.1 In parts of Wisconsin and Michigan, where majestic stands of red and white pines had once loomed, smoldering stumps stretched as far as the eye could see. Cattle and sheep trampled the meadows of even the most remote mountain valleys. Reflecting on such depressing developments, Theodore Roosevelt articulated a key conservationist sentiment when he concluded in 1897 that “[t]he frontier had come to an end; it had vanished.”2 Wilderness preservation was but one part of the larger response of conservationists to what they understood as nothing less than a crisis of their civilization.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.003 | 0.006 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.009 | 0.010 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.011 | 0.007 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.006 |
| Research integrity | 0.003 | 0.006 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.016 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".