Direct Detection of keV-scale Electrons in Single-Photon Avalanche Diode-Based Detectors
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Photomultiplier tubes (PMTs), despite being almost a century old, are still the most suitable photodetector for many astroparticle physics experiments, such as neutrino telescopes. One example of such a project is the Pacific Ocean Neutrino Experiment (P-ONE), a proposed deep-ocean neutrino telescope to be deployed off the coast of Canada that will monitor a few cubic kilometers of sea water with thousands of photodetectors. While the baseline design uses PMTs, incorporating single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs), with their precise photon counting and sub-nanosecond time resolution, could greatly improve the detector pointing resolution. However, the requirements of large photosensitive areas with low single-photon noise levels limits their use. A proposed solution is to use a hybrid photomultiplier tube instead: a PMT where the dynode chain is substituted by a SPAD array. Used in this configuration, SPADs need to directly detect electrons with O(100 eV - 10 keV) energies. Here we present a systematic study of direct electron detection in a prototype SPAD and a commercially available array to guide the design of a SPAD tailored for a hybrid photodetector.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".