Direct Detection of keV-scale Electrons in Single-Photon Avalanche Diode-Based Detectors
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Photomultiplier tubes (PMTs), despite being almost a century old, are still the most suitable photodetector for many astroparticle physics experiments, such as neutrino telescopes. One example of such a project is the Pacific Ocean Neutrino Experiment (P-ONE), a proposed deep-ocean neutrino telescope to be deployed off the coast of Canada that will monitor a few cubic kilometers of sea water with thousands of photodetectors. While the baseline design uses PMTs, incorporating single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs), with their precise photon counting and sub-nanosecond time resolution, could greatly improve the detector pointing resolution. However, the requirements of large photosensitive areas with low single-photon noise levels limits their use. A proposed solution is to use a hybrid photomultiplier tube instead: a PMT where the dynode chain is substituted by a SPAD array. Used in this configuration, SPADs need to directly detect electrons with O(100 eV - 10 keV) energies. Here we present a systematic study of direct electron detection in a prototype SPAD and a commercially available array to guide the design of a SPAD tailored for a hybrid photodetector.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".