An Area-Efficient 21- to 23-GHz Analog Beamformer With Pseudo-Distributed Amplifier Architecture
Bibliographic record
Abstract
This article presents an area and power-efficient pseudo-distributed amplifier (Pseudo-DA) beamforming architecture capable of supporting two simultaneous beams. The proposed receiving beamformer is constructed by removing the input transmission line of a distributed amplifier (DA) to directly connect the gain cells to the antenna elements of a phased array and utilizing tunable artificial transmission line (Tunable-ATL) cells of DA’s output transmission line for creating the required progressive phase shifts. Using both ends of the output transmission line, two simultaneous beams can be obtained. The first beam can be steered independently while the other one is formed as an image of the first one. In this article, the theory of operation and the design methodology of the proposed beamformer are presented. In addition, to verify the efficacy of the proposed solution a$K$-band four-element prototype is fabricated in a standard 65-nm complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) technology, and the measurement results are reported. The fabricated beamformer provides 110° beam steering over a 21–23 GHz frequency range. The measured gain, noise figure, and 1 dB compression point (P1dB) are 18 dB, 5.1 dB, and −18.5 dBm, respectively, with 90-mW dc power consumption and a chip area of$2.05 \text {mm}^{2}$.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".