From wildlife to humans: The global distribution of Trichinella species and genotypes in wildlife and wildlife-associated human trichinellosis
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Zoonotic nematodes of the genus Trichinella are foodborne parasites that have a global distribution in wild carnivores and omnivores, with spillover and spillback into domestic livestock and people, with concomitant trade and health consequences. Historically, most human cases were linked to domestic pigs infected with Trichinella spiralis, but under current high biosecurity swine production in many countries, wildlife have become a more important source of human trichinellosis. The aim of this review is to update the global distribution of Trichinella species and genotypes reported in wildlife, as well as reported human outbreaks from the consumption of wildlife. Using several online databases and by “snowballing” references, hundreds of reports of Trichinella spp. in wildlife published between January 1991 and December 2023 provide an important update to the host and geographic range for each of the recognized 13 species/genotypes, grouped by continent. Surveillance effort was highest in Europe and North America, while Africa, Asia, Central and South America have had limited surveillance, in some instances with human cases serving as sentinels of transmission in a region. Dozens of human outbreaks are described, with wild boars (Sus scrofa) being the most frequently implicated wildlife species in human outbreaks globally. Bears are an important source of infection in North America, for wildlife tourism, and importation of bear meat has also been implicated in multicountry outbreaks. The largest study limitation was the dearth of molecular identification of larvae in both wildlife surveillance studies and human outbreaks, particulary in under-studied regions. We highlight the need for enhanced molecular epidemiological approaches to outbreaks of this important foodborne parasite, and emphasize the need for a One Health approach to manage Trichinella spp. which transmit among terrestrial and marine wildlife (including migratory birds), pigs, horses, and people, often across large geographic scales and borders.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".