Advanced charging and battery management systems for E-mobility
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid vehicles are growing to occupy the roads worldwide. Although these vehicle technologies have emerged to be production-ready, there is still scope for improvement. Major components of an EV comprise a battery, battery charger, power train, DC-DC converter, and other outlying components. Each of these components plays a critical role in building an EV, and each component has multitudinous underlying operation principles. The battery serves as the energy source or a fuel tank of the vehicle. The fuel level present in an internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle is represented by the use of a fuel gauge and can be obtained by a fuel sensor. However, in an EV where battery is an energy source, representing the available energy in the battery is not as direct as in an ICE vehicle as there is no physical sensor available to measure the energy capacity of a battery. The two major categories of batteries on hand today are primary and secondary batteries. Primary batteries are non-rechargeable batteries; these types of batteries are not feasible for transportation applications. The secondary batteries are rechargeable batteries that can be charged and discharged a number of times. Among several rechargeable batteries available, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are best suited for vehicular applications. Although these batteries have good specific energy and power density, they are sensitive to operating conditions and hence the need for an intelligent way to manage these batteries. The secondary/rechargeable batteries also need smart and controlled methods to recharge. The batteries can be recharged with the help of power electronics and smart power electronic controllers. This chapter covers the basics of batteries that are used in vehicles and other applications and basic terminologies associated with batteries. The chapter also describes the LIBs and the theory of LIB to be used in EVs in particular. Requirements of EV/PHEV batteries, protection strategies, LIB management system (BMS), and battery state estimations are discussed. Finally, charging standards, protocols, wireless charging technology, and battery swapping technologies are included.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.024 | 0.012 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".