A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Language and Cognition in the Developing Bilingual Brain: From Infancy to Adolescence
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Research investigating the neural mechanisms of language and cognition in bilingual children is steadily growing. We reviewed fMRI and fNIRS studies to identify brain regions engaged during linguistic and cognitive tasks of bilingual compared to monolingual children. Out of 26 eligible studies, six fMRI studies were included into an exploratory coordinate-based meta-analysis, whereas fNIRS papers lacked sufficient statistical and methodological data for meta-analysis. Results suggest that: (1) bilinguals’ neural correlates of language and cognition revealed clusters across classic language areas; however, differences were discerned based on bilinguals’ age of acquisition; (2) comparisons considering bilingual age of acquisition groups and age-matched monolinguals revealed differences in activation within the IFG – sole area identified in the fMRI meta-analysis – among other regions across the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes. Overall, activation patterns in bilingual children align with those of bilingual adult studies, highlighting involvement of key frontal and temporal regions in language and cognition.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.005 | 0.018 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.008 | 0.010 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.006 | 0.007 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.004 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".