Direct Measurement of the Absolute Seebeck Coefficient Using Graphene as a Zero Coefficient Reference
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Despite the importance of the Seebeck coefficient to thermoelectric materials, the current methods to determine the absolute Seebeck coefficient, S, have not progressed much in 90 years. A clear limitation comes from the superconducting reference material, which requires measurements performed at low temperature. For most thermoelectric applications, S values are deduced at higher temperatures using the Kelvin relation, which, in turn, requires difficult measurements of the Thomson effect. In this work, we present a simple method with graphene transistors to measure the absolute Seebeck coefficient at and above room temperature. As a zero coefficient reference material, graphene naturally provides a zero absolute Seebeck coefficient when the Fermi level is tuned to the charge neutrality (Dirac) point. Here we use a graphene reference device to acquire direct and accurate measurements of the absolute Seebeck coefficient of five different materials (chromel, molybdenum, gold, tungsten, and constantan) from 230 to 390 K. We also highlight how graphene’s unique characteristics, including its stability, insensitivity to impurities, and ease of tunable electrical properties, allow for in situ calibration. This work presents graphene as an ideal and robust reference standard of the absolute Seebeck coefficient.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".