Evaluation of a New Mobile Virtual Reality Setup to Alter Pain Perception: Pilot Development and Usability Study in Healthy Participants
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Background: Chronic pain presents a significant treatment challenge, often leading to frustration for both patients and therapists due to the limitations of traditional methods. Research has shown that synchronous visuo-tactile stimulation, as used in the rubber hand experiment, can induce a sense of ownership over a fake body part and reduces pain perception when ownership of the fake body part is reported. The effect of the rubber hand experiment can be extended to the full body, for example, during the full-body illusion, using both visuo-tactile and cardiovisual signals. Objective: This study first aimed to evaluate the usability and accuracy of a novel, mobile virtual reality (VR) setup that displays participants' heartbeats as a flashing silhouette on a virtual avatar, a technique known as the cardiovisual full-body illusion. The second part of the study investigated the effects of synchronous cardiovisual stimulation on pain perception and ownership in 20 healthy participants as compared with asynchronous stimulation (control condition). Methods: The setup comprised a head-mounted display (HMD) and a heart rate measurement device. A smartphone-based HMD (Samsung Galaxy S8+) was selected for its mobility, and heart rates were measured using smartwatches with photoplethysmography (PPG). The accuracy of 2 smartwatch positions was compared with a 5-point electrocardiogram (ECG) standard in terms of their accuracy (number and percent of missed beats). Each participant underwent two 5-minute sessions of synchronous cardiovisual stimulation and two 5-minute sessions of asynchronous cardiovisual stimulation (total of 4 sessions), followed by pain assessments. Usability, symptoms of cybersickness, and ownership of the virtual body were measured using established questionnaires (System Usability Scale, Simulator Sickness Questionnaire, Ownership Questionnaire). Pain perception was assessed using advanced algometric methods (Algopeg and Somedic algometer). Results: Results demonstrated high usability scores (mean 4.42, SD 0.56; out of 5), indicating ease of use and acceptance, with minimal side effects (mean 1.18, SD 0.46; out of a possible 4 points on the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire). The PPG device showed high heart rate measurement precision, which improved with optimized filtering and peak detection algorithms. However, compared with previous work, no significant effects on body ownership and pain perception were observed between the synchronous and asynchronous conditions. These findings are discussed in the context of existing literature on VR interventions for chronic pain. Conclusions: In conclusion, while the new VR setup showed high usability and minimal side effects, it did not significantly affect ownership or pain perception. This highlights the need for further research to refine VR-based interventions for chronic pain management, considering factors like visual realism and perspective.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.006 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".