Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract Slavery existed in Africa for a long time before there was a slave trade with North Africans, the Middle East, Europeans, or the Indian Ocean world. The first contact between peoples north and south of the Sahara came in the Nile Valley. Ancient Egypt was not a slave society, but captives were often enslaved. Northeast Africa and the coast of East Africa were influenced by the penetration of the Indian Ocean by Greek and Roman navigators. Farther west, the development of trade was influenced by camels, which facilitated the growth of trade, and horses, which were useful in warfare. The availability of gold underwrote the creation of three empires centered on the Niger River, but the export of slaves from both West and Central Sudan supplemented the gold trade. Islam provided sanctions for slaving and a market for slaves. The transatlantic slave trade began in the 15th century and by the end of the 17th century achieved a greater scale than the trans-Saharan trade. It also led to the formation of a series of centralized and highly militarized states. The same period saw the growth of Indian Ocean trade and a penetration of East Africa by Arab and Swahili slave trades. The abolition of the slave trade and then slavery by European states in the 19th century did not reduce the trade but instead increased it as slaves were put to work producing commodities for European markets. Slaves were used in different ways within Africa, but the greatest difference from the Americas was in the importance of women, soldiers, and elite slaves.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.004 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.003 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.002 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".