Aqueous Supercapacitor with Wide‐Temperature Operability and over 100,000 Cycles Enabled by Water‐in‐Salt Electrolyte
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract Supercapacitors are crucial in renewable energy integration, satellite power systems, and rapid power delivery applications for mitigating voltage fluctuations and storing excess energy. Aqueous electrolytes offer a promising solution for low‐cost and safe supercapacitors. However, they still face limitations in cycle life and wide‐temperature range performance. Here, we present a symmetric supercapacitor utilizing activated carbon electrodes and a “water‐in‐salt” electrolyte (WiSE) based on lithium perchlorate. The WiSE electrolyte exhibits an expanded electrochemical stability window, endowing the aqueous supercapacitor with remarkable stability and long cycle life of over 100,000 cycles at 500 mA g −1 with more than 91 % capacity retention. Moreover, the supercapacitor demonstrates good rate capability and wide temperature operability ranging from −20 to 80 °C. The use of high concentrations of salt in the aqueous electrolyte contributes not only to the enhancement of supercapacitor performance and cycle life but also to the temperature stability range, enabling all‐season operability.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".