Linear field-resolved spectroscopy approaching ultimate detection sensitivity
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Electric-field oscillations are now experimentally accessible in the THz-to-PHz frequency range. Their measurement delivers the most comprehensive information content attainable by optical spectroscopy – if performed with high sensitivity. Yet, the trade-off between bandwidth and efficiency associated with the nonlinear mixing necessary for field sampling has so far strongly restricted sensitivity in applications such as field-resolved spectroscopy of molecular vibrations. Here, we demonstrate electric-field sampling of octave-spanning mid-infrared waves in the 18-to-39 THz (600-to-1300 cm -1 ) spectral region, with amplitudes ranging from the MV/cm level down to a few mV/cm. We show that employing powerful 2-µm gate pulses is key to approaching the ultimate detection limit of capturing all photons in the temporal gate, as well as providing high linearity with respect to the detected mid-infrared field. This combination of detection sensitivity, dynamic range, and linearity enables the exploitation of the full potential of emerging high-power waveform-controlled infrared sources for (non-)linear spectroscopy of solids, liquids, and gases.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".