Efficacy of Risperidone in Enhancing Cognitive Functions in Psychiatric Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract Background: Schizophrenia affects about 1% of the global population, with cognitive impairments significantly impacting patients’ quality of life. Risperidone, a second-generation antipsychotic, is commonly used to treat schizophrenia, known for its efficacy in reducing symptoms and potential cognitive benefits. However, the extent of its impact on cognitive functions remains unclear due to inconsistencies in the literature, necessitating a systematic review and meta-analysis to better understand these effects. Materials and Methods: Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis guidelines, we systematically reviewed clinical randomised trials and cohort studies evaluating the efficacy of risperidone on cognitive functions in schizophrenia. A comprehensive literature search was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and the Cochrane Library. The quality of included studies was assessed using the risk of bias 2 tool and the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale. Results: Eleven studies with 649 patients were analysed. Significant cognitive improvements were observed in several domains: positive and negative syndrome scale ( n = 228, standardised mean difference [SMD] = −0.44, 95% CI [−0.70, −0.17], P = 0.001), verbal learning ( n = 98, SMD = 0.67, 95% CI [0.26, 1.09], P = 0.001) and Trails B ( n = 124, SMD = −1.02, 95% CI [−1.28, −0.75], P < 0.00001). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test perseverations showed a reduction in errors ( n = 792, SMD = −0.14, 95% CI [−0.28, −0.0], P = 0.05), and Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised Logical Memory tests, both immediate ( n = 272, SMD = 0.53, 95% CI [0.28, 0.78], P < 0.0001) and delayed recall ( n = 288, SMD = 0.48, 95% CI [0.24, 0.72], P < 0.0001), indicated improvements. Attention and processing speed also improved significantly ( n = 98, SMD = 0.69, 95% CI [0.27, 1.11], P = 0.001). However, no significant effects were observed for working memory ( n = 368, SMD = −0.02, 95% CI [−0.23, 0.19], P = 0.85), verbal fluency ( n = 456, SMD = 0.04, 95% CI [−0.14, 0.22], P = 0.67), Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) Block Design ( n = 78, SMD = 0.35, 95% CI [−0.10, 0.80], P = 0.13), WAIS-R digit symbol ( n = 170, SMD = 0.22, 95% CI [−0.09, 0.52], P = 0.16) or motor function ( n = 74, SMD = 0.27, 95% CI [−0.20, 0.75], P = 0.26). Conclusions: Our meta-analysis indicates that risperidone significantly improves cognitive functions in psychiatric disorders especially schizophrenia, particularly in areas related to attention, processing speed, executive function and memory recall. These findings highlight the potential of risperidone beyond its primary antipsychotic effects. Further research with larger and more diverse populations is needed to confirm these findings and explore the long-term impact of risperidone on cognitive functions.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.012 | 0.026 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.003 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.021 | 0.038 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.007 | 0.007 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.003 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.004 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".