The effects of a microplastic mixture on wood frogs (<i>Rana sylvatica</i>) across multiple life stages in an outdoor mesocosm experiment
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Microplastics have been found across the globe in the habitats of many amphibians. To investigate how exposure to microplastics affects hatching success, survival, growth, and development of wood frogs (Rana sylvatica), as well as how these animals may act as vectors for microplastics, a 96-day outdoor mesocosm experiment was conducted at the Queen's University Biological Station (Ontario, Canada). Wood frogs were allocated to a negative control group or exposed to an additive-containing microplastic mixture (equal parts polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyethylene terephthalate) at nominal water concentrations of 0.069 g/L or 0.691 g/L. Whereas hatchling survival, hatching success, and hatchling size did not differ among experimental groups, exposure to microplastics caused increased larval growth at both microplastic concentrations and delayed larval development at the highest concentration. However, there was little evidence that survival, body size, or development of metamorphs were affected by exposure to microplastics. We found microplastics in the gastrointestinal tract and on the skin of wood frogs and also inside the liver and leg muscle. In addition, the presence of frogs enhanced the flux of positively buoyant microplastics between the aquatic and terrestrial environment. This study provides new insights into how microplastic pollution affects the growth and development of wood frogs and suggests that amphibians with a biphasic life cycle may act as biovectors of plastics across water-land interfaces.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".