Catalytic Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Grape Pomace Using Ni–ZrO<sub>2</sub>–MSS and Ni–HZSM5 in a Water–Crude Glycerol Cosolvent
Bibliographic record
Abstract
High Resolution Image Download MS PowerPoint Slide This study focused on the catalytic hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) of grape pomace using Ni–HZSM5 and Ni–ZrO 2 –modified steel slag (MSS) catalysts, employing a water-crude glycerol cosolvent. The research aimed to understand how temperature, solvent ratios, and crude glycerol composition affect biocrude yield and properties, and to evaluate the stability of regenerated catalysts. The results revealed that when fatty acids/glycerides-rich crude glycerol was used, the highest biocrude yield of 76 wt %, HHV of 41 MJ/kg, H/C ratio of 1.81, and energy recovery of 90.9% was achieved at 320 °C with 75% crude glycerol concentration in the cosolvent. Catalytic HTL with Ni–HZSM5 significantly reduced the acid content of the biocrude by 44%. Although Ni–ZrO 2 –MSS increased the biocrude yield from 44.07 to 49.97 wt %, it promoted the production of acids and reduced the esters in biocrude. TGA refinery cut results showed that both catalysts enhance diesel production, with Ni–HZSM5 yielding the highest diesel fraction (41.24%) compared to Ni–ZrO 2 –MSS (37.51%) and the noncatalytic process (33.56%). Moreover, both catalysts significantly reduced the production of heavier fractions, such as residual fuel oil and bitumen. While the modification significantly enhanced the BET surface area of raw steel slag from 4.04 to 49.61 m 2 /g in Ni–ZrO 2 –MSS, the surface area of the regenerated catalyst after HTL dropped to 15.88 m 2 /g, aligning with decreased H 2 uptake, indicating a loss of active sites. Similarly, the surface area of Ni–HZSM5 decreased from 522.25 to 387.37 m 2 /g after HTL, while the pore volume increased from 0.2095 to 0.3425 cm 3 /g. However, the spent Ni–HZSM5 catalyst displayed an increase in H 2 uptake (269.49 μmol/g) with a shift in the reduction peaks to higher temperatures, suggesting the creation of new active sites or changes in the dispersion of NiO species during the reaction. The TPO graphs confirm the presence of coke with an intermediate structure between amorphous and graphitic carbon.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".