Spatial and temporal variation of malaria incidence in children under 10 years in a pyrethroid-resistant vector area in southern Benin
Bibliographic record
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Spatial and temporal identification of malaria-endemic areas is a key component of vector-borne disease control. Strategies to target the most vulnerable populations, the periods of high transmission and the most affected geographical areas, should make vector-borne disease control and prevention programmes more cost-effective. The present study focuses on the spatial and temporal dynamics of malaria cases and the exogenous factors influencing the transmission in an area with pyrethroid-resistant mosquito vector populations. METHODS: A prospective cohort study of 1806 children under 10 years of age was conducted over 20 months to assess the risk of malaria incidence in the Cove-Zagnanado-Ouinhi (CoZO) health zone located in southern Benin. Childhood malaria data were used to identify malaria hotspots according to months of follow-up using spatial scanning methods based on the Kulldoff algorithm. Stability scores were calculated by season to assess incidence heterogeneity. Incidence values by month were aggregated with meteorological data; and demographic data were merged to detect cross-correlation between incidence and meteorological variables. Generalized equation estimators were chosen for their ability to handle intra-group correlation, ensuring robust and interpretable results despite the complexity of the data to identify factors explaining the spatio-temporal heterogeneity of malaria incidence in the CoZO health zone. RESULTS: Malaria incidence ranged from 1.41 (95% IC 0.96-2.08) to 13.91 (95% IC 12.22-15.84) cases per 100 child-months. Spatial heterogeneity in malaria transmission hotspots was observed over the study period, with relative risks ranging from 1.59 (p-value = 0.032) to 16.24 (p-value = 0.002). There was a significant negative association (correlation coefficient = - 0.56) between malaria incidence and temperature; and a slightly positive association (correlation coefficient = 0.58) between malaria incidence and rainfall. A significant association between malaria incidence with average house altitude (adjusted incidence rate ratio [aIRR] 1 (95% IC 0.99-1) P < 0.001), soil type aIRR 0.54 (0.39-0.75) p < 0.001 and temperature (incidence rate ratio [IRR] 0.69 (0.66-0.73) p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: This study uses innovative technologies such as remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) to analyse the environmental, meteorological and geographical factors influencing malaria transmission, thereby identifying high-risk areas and associated factors. It demonstrates that these tools improve the accuracy of control strategies, while highlighting the crucial role of the environment and human behaviour, paving the way for more targeted interventions against malaria and other vector-borne diseases.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".