Prospective Randomized Controlled Trial of the Impact of Olfactory Training on Cognitive and Emotional Function in Individuals with Parkinson Disease
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Objective To investigate the clinical effects of olfactory training (OT) on olfactory function and related nonmotor symptoms in patients with Parkinson disease (PD). Design Randomized controlled trial with a duration of 6 months of follow-up. Setting A tertiary hospital providing neurology rehabilitation services in China. Participants Of 81 initially recruited PD patients, 70 completed the study (N=70, 35 per group after randomization: OT group n=35, control n=35). All participants met inclusion criteria and received standard medical care. No dropouts were because of adverse effects. Interventions The intervention group received OT using a standardized protocol. The training involved daily exposure to specific odorants for 6 months. The control group did not receive OT. Main Outcome Measures Primary outcomes included changes in olfactory test scores, memory and cognition scores (assessed using neuropsychological tests), and depressive and anxiety scale scores. These were measured before and after the 6-month intervention. Results After 6 months, the intervention group exhibited significant improvements in olfactory test scores (threshold-discrimination-identification score: t=3.839, P <.01, Cohen's d=0.649), memory (memory quotient: t=2.597, P <.05, Cohen's d=0.439) and cognition scores (Mini-Mental State Examination: z=−2.791, P <.01, rank-biserial correlation ( r )=−0.330 and Montreal Cognitive Assessment: t=2.626, P <.05, Cohen's d=0.444), depressive (Hamilton Depression Scale: z=−3.601, P <.001, r =−0.425 and Patient Health Questionnaire-9: z=−2.396, P <.05, r =−0.29) and anxiety (Hamilton Anxiety Scale: z=−3.049, P <.01, r =−0.36 and Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7: z=−2.849, P <.01, r =0.336) scale scores compared to the control group, showing moderate effects, respectively. The increase in memory scale scores was positively correlated with the increase in olfactory scores (Spearman r =0.415, P <.05). Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 27.0 software, with P values indicating significance. Conclusions The OT has beneficial effects on olfactory function and related nonmotor symptoms in patients with PD. The 6-month training led to significant improvements in memory, cognition, depression, and anxiety. Further studies are needed to determine the long-term effects and optimal duration of OT for patients with PD.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.002 | 0.013 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".