Modified Chemical Bath Deposition of Tin Oxide for All‐Scalable Perovskite Solar Modules
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract Chemical bath deposition (CBD) of tin oxide is a commercially viable method for manufacturing the electron transport layer in perovskite solar cells, yet it remains highly sensitive to reaction conditions, particularly pH. This study introduces tin‐like cation, namely Pb2+, as a chemical modulator to stabilize the CBD process. Due to nearly two orders of magnitude higher solubility of lead hydroxide (Pb(OH)2) as compared to tin hydroxides (Sn(OH)2 and Sn(OH)4), Pb(OH)2 acts as an OH− scavenger, reducing free excess OH− concentration and suppressing premature tin oxide (SnOx) precipitation. This enables the formation of smooth, uniform SnOx films. Perovskite photovoltaics fabricated on these SnOx films via ambient and scalable processes achieve a power conversion efficiency of 24.5% for cells (and 17.8% for solar modules), retaining >84% of initial performance after 1000 h of operation under maximum power point tracking (MPPT) at 65 ± 5 °C.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".