Salmon juveniles are vulnerable to predation by invasive African clawed frogs in Washington state
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The Pacific Northwest, U.S.A., hosts multiple threatened salmonid species. Predation by introduced species are among the threats salmon face. African clawed frogs (ACFs; Xenopus laevis (Daudin, 1802)) are a generalist, non-native invasive species recently found in waterways in Washington State, USA. Our goal was to identify if ACF posed a threat to early life stages of Chinook ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum in Artedi, 1792)), coho ( Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walbaum, 1792)), and chum ( Oncorhynchus keta (Walbaum in Artedi, 1792)) salmon. We conducted feeding trials to discover the foraging propensity of ACF on salmon in three development phases, eyed eggs, alevin, and fry. We predicted that ACF would most readily consume less mobile life stages, based on foraging in other amphibians. Our results showed that ACF consumed all species at all juvenile life stages. The life stage experiencing the highest rates of consumption was salmon fry (72% consumption) and the lowest was eyed eggs (24% consumption). Gravel shelter minimally buffered ACF consumption. Given the growing presence of ACF in proximity to salmon spawning waterways, ACF may pose an additional threat to salmonid recruitment, and require further study to investigate potential interactions.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".