Enhancing Memory-Limited Feedforward Neural Networks for State of Charge Estimation through Temporal Feature Engineering
Bibliographic record
Abstract
State-of-charge (SOC) estimation is a key function of Battery Management Systems (BMS) in electric vehicles and battery energy storage systems. However, SOC is not directly measurable, making accurate estimation inherently challenging. Data-driven approaches offer a practical solution by leveraging measurable inputs such as voltage, current, and temperature. Feedforward Neural Networks (FNNs) are attractive due to their low computational complexity, but they lack inherent temporal memory, unlike recurrent architectures. This paper investigates three established casual smoothing techniques-moving average, Butterworth filtering, and exponential moving average-as temporal memory proxies for enhancing FNN-based SOC estimation. Their effectiveness is supported by frequency-domain analysis using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), which reveals that key signal dynamics occur at ultra-low frequencies (less than 0.1 mHz), justifying the use of smoothing as memory-preserving transformations. The main contribution of this work is a unified, frequency-informed evaluation framework that systematically benchmarks these techniques under consistent conditions and across varying temperatures. All models are trained and evaluated on LG 18650HG2 Lithium-ion battery data, with 20 repeated runs per model to ensure statistical robustness.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".