Water-enhanced mixed-alkylammonium chloride perovskite inks for humidity-tolerant fabrication of solar modules
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Ambient-air fabrication of perovskite solar cells (PSCs) remains challenging due to humidity-induced defects. Here, we develop a humidity-tolerant fabrication of formamidinium lead iodide (FAPbI 3 ) incorporating methylammonium chloride (MACl) and propylammonium chloride (PACl), optimized through compositionally graded films. We identify FAPbI 3 ink containing MACl/PACl at 5/25 mol.% (relative to FAPbI 3 ) and 5 vol.% water (relative to final solution) as optimal to yield high-quality perovskite films across a broad range of relative humidity conditions. Nuclear magnetic resonance and pH analyses reveal PACl’s role in moderating water interactions and suppressing acid-induced degradation pathways. Films made from this humidity-tolerant ink exhibit improved crystallinity, reduced defect density, and phase-pure α-FAPbI 3 . PSCs fabricated with this ink achieve a power conversion efficiency of 22.7% (0.049 cm 2 ), while 10.23 cm 2 minimodules achieve 17.5% efficiency. The PSCs retain ∼80% initial efficiency after 400 h of maximum power point tracking under illumination and 330 h of thermal aging. This work advances scalable, climate-resilient perovskite photovoltaics.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".