Temperature Variability and Salt Pollution Interact to Alter Subsequent Multi‐Parasite Susceptibility in Larval Amphibians
Bibliographic record
Abstract
ABSTRACT Wild populations face unprecedented pressure from an assortment of anthropogenic environmental changes and parasites. We sought to understand how host–parasite interactions are affected by the interactive effects of multiple environmental stressors and subsequent parasite infection. We focused on American bullfrog tadpoles (Lithobates catesbeianus) that can become infected by several parasite species (e.g., trematodes in the family Echinostomatidae genus Echinstoma, and Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis; “Bd”) and are affected by abiotic stressors including road salt and variable temperatures attributed to climate change. In a multi‐phase laboratory experiment, we exposed tadpoles to one of two salt treatments (0 and 1.5 g L−1 added NaCl sublethal salt) and one of two temperature treatments (constant 23°C and fluctuating between 20°C and 25°C). Next, we exposed these tadpoles to one of four parasite treatments (parasite absent, Bd only, trematodes only, and Bd & trematodes together) at a constant temperature (23°C) without added salt. We then recorded morphological measurements (length, mass, developmental stage) and quantified infection intensity. Tadpoles exposed to Bd were larger in mass than the other parasite treatments, and the effects of trematode exposure on length varied by temperature. We did not detect any effect of our treatments on developmental stage. We found an interaction between the salinity and temperature treatments where tadpoles exposed to Bd only or to fluctuating temperatures and Bd and trematodes together had higher Bd infection in the no salt added treatment compared to the sublethal salt treatment. Tadpoles in stable temperatures and no salt treatments had lower subsequent Bd infection loads than those in stable temperatures and elevated salt. With trematode infection, we found that when no salt was added, tadpoles exposed to trematodes only had higher parasite abundance compared to the other treatments (i.e., a salinity by parasite interaction). Our results suggest that the interaction of temperatures and salt pollution in freshwater can increase subsequent Bd infection and that the parasites (Bd & echinostome trematodes) can interact with each other, altering infection levels.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".