Romanino’s Colour Palette in the “Musicians” Fresco of the Duomo Vecchio, Brescia
Bibliographic record
Abstract
This study examines the pigments and materials used in Girolamo Romanino’s Musicians fresco (1537–1538), located in the Duomo Vecchio in Brescia, with the aim of identifying and analyzing the artist’s colour palette. Ten samples of the pictorial layer and mortar were collected from two frescoes and characterized using microscopic and spectroscopic techniques. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) was used to define the best positions where single-point, spectroscopic techniques could be applied. Raman spectroscopy and micro-Fourier transform Infrared spectroscopy (micro-FTIR) were used to detect pigments and organic binders, respectively. X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) provided additional insights into the mineral composition of the pigmenting layers, in combination with environmental scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (ESEM-EDS). The analysis revealed the use of traditional fresco pigments, including calcite, carbon black, ochres, and copper-based pigments. Smalt, manganese earths, and gold were also identified, reflecting Romanino’s approach to colour and material selection. Additionally, the detection of modern pigments such as titanium white and baryte points to restoration interventions, shedding light on the fresco’s conservation history. This research provides one of the most comprehensive analyses of pigments in Romanino’s works, contributing to a deeper understanding of his artistic practices and contemporary fresco techniques.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".