Foods and Dietary Intakes and the Risk of Parkinson’s Disease: A Systematic Review and Dose–Response Meta-analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies
Bibliographic record
Abstract
CONTEXT: Evidence suggests a link between diet and Parkinson's disease (PD). OBJECTIVE: We conducted a dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies to examine the association of food-group intakes and dietary patterns with PD incidence. DATA SOURCES: After searching PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, 29 cohort studies with 1 307 337 participants met the eligibility criteria. DATA EXTRACTION: Quantitative exposure levels and the most adjusted risk estimates and 95% CIs were extracted. DATA ANALYSIS: Linear and nonlinear dose-response analyses and highest vs lowest intake comparisons were conducted using STATA and RevMan. Risk of bias was assessed by the Newcastle-Ottawa quality-assessment tool. RESULTS: Dairy, low-fat dairy, milk, and cheese indicated a positive dose-response association with PD risk. High consumption of dairy, low-fat dairy, and milk demonstrated 26% (odd ratio [OR], 1.26; 95% CI, 1.12-1.41), 30% (OR, 1.30; 95% CI, 1.06-1.58), and 23% (OR, 1.23; 95% CI, 1.07-1.43) increased PD risk compared with the lowest intake categories, respectively. Linear dose-response analysis showed a 5%-7% increased risk for every 100-g/day dairy and low-fat dairy intake, 4% increased risk per 10-g cheese/day, and 13% increased risk per 1 cup milk/day. Sex-based subgroup analysis revealed stronger associations in men for dairy and, to a lesser extent, for low-fat dairy, milk, yogurt, and cheese. Legumes/nuts were the only group that showed a reduced PD risk (OR, 0.71; 95% CI, 0.62-0.81). Both healthy and unhealthy dietary patterns showed dose-response associations with PD risk. Also, in the highest vs lowest comparison, adherence to healthy diets was associated with a 37% reduction in PD risk (OR, 0.63; 95% CI, 0.54-0.74), while adherence to unhealthy diets was linked to a 40% increased PD risk (OR, 1.40; 95% CI, 1.07-1.83). CONCLUSION: These findings underscore the importance of diet in the prevention or development of PD. While adherence to healthy diets was associated with reduced PD risk, dairy consumption, despite being part of healthy diets, was linked to increased risk, highlighting the need for more nuanced dietary guidance. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION: PROSPERO no. CRD420251026654.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.021 | 0.046 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.003 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.016 | 0.041 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.006 | 0.008 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.003 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".