Formulation and 3D Printing of PVDF-Containing Photocurable Resins for Digital Light Processing
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Additive manufacturing of electroactive polymers offers transformative potential for flexible electronics and smart devices, yet preserving the microstructure responsible for the electroactive property during processing remains a challenge. Here, we report a digital light processing (DLP) approach formulated without any volatile organic solvent to prepare poly-(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF)-based composites under ambient conditions, employing 1,6-hexanediol dimethacrylate (HDDMA) as a polymerizable matrix and phenylbis-(2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl)-phosphine oxide (BAPO) as an efficient visible-light photoinitiator. Unlike conventional solvent-based methods relying on PVDF dissolution, this formulation enables direct dispersion of PVDF particles in the photocurable resin without the use of organic solvents that are typically used in the processing of PVDF. Formulation optimization enabled stable suspensions of PVDF up to 35 wt %, with rheological and optical properties leading to high-fidelity DLP printed samples. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) of cross sections of the 3D printed sample revealed uniform dispersion of PVDF-rich domains. Comprehensive characterization of the 3D printed sample using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), infrared spectroscopy (IR), and X-ray diffraction confirmed the retention of the pristine PVDF's semicrystalline phases postprocessing. Preprinting modification of the PVDF and postprinting modifications of the 3D printed composite were conducted to confirm this observation. For instance, solvent-precipitated PVDF with enhanced β phase fraction, which is often associated with electroactivity, was used in the formulation without phase degradation during photopolymerization and postprint annealing of the 3D printed composite provided additional phase tuning, underscoring the versatility of this approach. This work establishes DLP as a robust platform for the additive manufacturing PVDF-based composites, allowing for precise control and retention over crystalline phase content and complex architectures, potentially relevant for electroactive applications in next-generation flexible electronics.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".